A relational analysis of migration and remittances sent by migrants and its impact on the educational outcome of left behind children in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa , Pakistan

Migration is a constant phenomenon in human evolution and had played a vital role in human affairs throughout the ages and the modern world that observe the ‘age of migration’ has no exception. Increasing international migratory flow during the last four decades have been the most visible manifestations of the globalization process accompanied by designation of the normative and institutional framework for global governance. This paper examines the relationship between migration and remittances sent by migrants with the educational outcome of left behind children. In this regard, the study has been carried out at Union Council Level in District Dir Lower Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. The primary data was obtained from a sample of 99 migrants' families through interview schedule utilizing purposive sampling technique. The collected information was classified and analyzed through computer based program (SPSS) and the given hypothesis were tested through chi-squire test. The results thus confirmed that there is a significant relationship between migration and education of left behind children in the migrants' families. ARTICLE INFORMATION Received: 25 April 2016 Revised: 25 May 2016 Accepted: 25 June 2016


Introduction
Migration is a constant phenomenon in human evolution.Throughout the ages, human beings have exploited the option of migration to overcome their issues and to facilitate their life style.Initially, human migration was to move to have livelihood and seek life around the globe from their origin.Historically, Koser (2007) have stated that the history of migration begins with the origins of mankind in the Rift Valley in Africa in the year 5000 BC and thus about 1.5 million Homo erectus and Homo sapiens spread initially into Europe and later into other continents.Nonetheless, this practice is more common in modern world, which is termed by many as 'the age of migration' and where more people remain in migratory categories as compare to previous ages and time.According to the World Migration Report (2011) in 2010, the total number of international migrants in the world was estimated at 214 million people -up from 191 million in 2005.While the estimated number of internal migrants is 740 million, around a billion people (roughly one in seven of the world's population) are migrants.Among these migrants estimated by International Migration Report, a significant number is from Asia.In view of the fact, the same report asserted that, five among top ten countries were in Asian region, notably Bangladesh, China, India, Pakistan and the Philippine.It has been argued in recent times that a fundamental feature of "feasible globalization" is the opening of international labour markets to allow for temporary economic migration from developing countries into the more developed ones (Rodrik 2002, Bhagwati 2003).The likely income gains from such a liberalization of labour markets is probable to be large and, from the standpoint of developing countries, is underscored by the large portion of migrant retribution that are remitted back to families of source in sending communities (Mansuri 2006).The impact of migration on sending community is multi-channels and it effect many social and communal aspect of life in source community.On one side through the large sum of remittances that migrants send back to their homes which not only effect the micro economic structure of the community, but on the other hand, it lead to the absence of an elder one from the household.The absence of such member also effect the family on variety of ways from role change of family members to psychological impact and the supervision of the left-behind dependent.Such scenario of application of migration increases the chances of education of children of migrant in source community through remittances (Hanson and Woodruff, 2003;Edwards and Ureta, 2003, Yang, 2008, Asmaa and Raina 2009;etc).Further, through continued absences of a close family member, role change, lack of proper supervision etc it adversely affect the education of left behind children (Hanson and Woodruff, 2003, Kristina 2009, Asmaa and Raina 2009).The dominant pattern of migration that of temporary economic migration of unskilled and low skilled worker from developing countries to developed countries is the focus of this paper in the context of Pakistan and its repercussion for the family left behind in country of origin.This paper aims to dig out the impact of migration on education in context of Pakistan.Pakistan a developing country with low economic development and opportunities for social mobility and unstable politics has more push factor for migration.In addition, an estimated number of 3.5 to 4 2 million live outside of the country, half of them in six countries of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) (Siegmann 2010).Inside Pakistan, Khyber Pukhtun Khwa (KPK), a small underdeveloped province, relatively backward area, with limited industries, few urban areas, and an agriculture sector that is one of the least productive in the country, is more dependent on migration (Addleton 1984).The specific objectives of the study area give below: ).The Bureau of Emigration and Overseas Employment have also described the fact on the International Day of Families 2010 "The high rate unemployment (9 percent), food inflation (10 percent) and nearly one third of the population below the poverty line forced the workers to migrate abroad.Moreover, a rural country with high dependency on agro-economy of least productive land is playing as a catalyst for pushing factor in the province of Khyber Pakhtoonkhwah to emigrate and balance the miseries of life (Siegmann 2010, Ahmad, Husain, Maqbool, sail, Husain, andAram 2008).Most of the people living outside the country are semi-skilled or unskilled however, skilled people migration has experienced a high beam in the last decades.The total number of migrants have been estimated to 7 million, among them 4 million legal, while the rest are non-registered migrants including student who overstayed (Naim andIftikhar 2008, Addleton 1984).Migration is a key factor in social and economic dynamic in Pakistan.More than half of Pakistani migrants have immigrated to Middle East, particularly to Gulf Cooperation Countries (GCC), after the 1970s, from 1973 oil crises and the subsequent boom in the Gulf region (Gazdar 2003, Siegmann 2008, Khan, Sajjid, Gondal, Ahmad 2009)).The major target was Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, but there was considerable focus to other countries including Iran, Iraq, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman (Arif 2009, Khan and Rehman 2012).However, a consisted and updated estimation of migration is visible in Migration and remittances fact book (2011), which shows that overseas Pakistanis have migration to the Middle East (45%), followed by Europe (29%) and America (23%).Migration and remittances fact book (2010) has placed Pakistan on seventh number among top ten remittances recipient countries, with $9.4 billion remittances annually.The rapid growth remittances are scene to be the most direct way to benefit Pakistan, which is send through different channels i.e. through regular banking channels (40%), through migrants returning home visit (29%), and nearly one third through private money changer (Addleton 1984, Arif 2009).The third channel-referred to in Pakistan the hundi system-is illegal but very popular in Pakistan.The main sources of overseas remittances are Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the UK and the US.Pakistan is one of the largest recipients of remittances in the developing world.In the 1980s, remittances were linked to a rapid decline in poverty levels and in recent decades the level of official remittances has continually increased.In 2005In -2006 (the year of the earthquake), official remittances reached some $430 million, an increase of over 10% over the previous year (State Bank of Pakistan, 2006, Suleri andSavage 2006).It is important to stress that estimating remittance flows accurately is laden with difficulties, and the data needs to be treated with great caution.Enterprise for Business and Development Manager (EBDM) (2009) stated that Savings remitted by Pakistani migrants abroad constitute the largest single source of foreign exchange earnings for the Country.In the early 1980s, this flow was equivalent to 10% of GNP.In 2003, the remittances were approximately US$ 2.4 billion or 4% of GNP and 2008 the remittances reached approximately US$ 3.7 billion.The available literature on the 'migration and its impact on the education of children lift behind' identify two main channels, through which migration can effect education of the non-migrants children of the migrants' houses.One of these channels is the flow of remittances from the distention countries to the source countries.These remittances may uplift the life profile of the migrants' family and raise the probability of more investment of remittances on the education of the children.More of the researcher found the positive correlation between remittances and its investment in the human capital accumulation.The other channel through which migration effect the education of lift behind children is adverse.The 'absence of family members' for a long time may generate some sort of 'psychological problem' among the left behind children, for example; the partition of the father may lead to stress among the children, or they may lose proper supervision of elders, which in term may affect the education of left behind children (Morooka andLiang 2009, Schapiro 2009).The UNICEF Working Paper (2008) pointed out that "a family member's departure in search of a job abroad entails handing over responsibilities to other family members."Such responsibilities may render the children from the school, or may affect their school performance.(Zuber 2012 and Mara et al. 2012) have found a negative impact of migration on child development and school performance.However, Schapiro has identified the positive correlation of migration and education of left behind children (2012).However, most of the studies found the positive impact of emigration on education of left behind children.Migration produces remittances, which enlarge household investment in education and health as well as in other necessities and facilities of life (Bryant 2005, Arif and Sattar 2005, Cantarji and Jigau 2008, Vargas-Lundius and Lanly 2009).Hanson and Woodruff (2003) stated that "The extra income a household gains from remittances may allow children to delay entering the workforce in order to further their studies.Rossi (2008) justified their hypothesis while looking the relationship between the education and migration that "In looking at the impact of migration and remittances on educational attainment, the underlying hypothesis is that remittances increase educational opportunities.The economic provision of the family circle positively affect the quality of education because if there would be batter economic condition of the household, they are more probable to supply their children batter education environment to advance their skill (Lee and Park 2010, Saeed and ashfaq 2012).In the light of given literature it ciould be assumed that migration affect education positively.

Perspectives on migration and education of children left behind
Adams (1998) stated that "Challenging the older view of remittances as being devoted primarily to basic and conspicuous consumption, some newer analyses have shown that remittances have been invested into lasting types of capital, including infrastructure building, asset accumulation, savings, and education.A good number of remittance utilization studies focus on education.Remittances have been found to ease budget constraints, enabling households to consider more spending toward children's education.Semyonov and Gorodzeisky (2008) find that "In the Philippines, remittance spending on schooling was found for over 95 percent of households receiving remittances."The large evidence from South American and Mexico studies shows that a ''remittance effect'' often exists, but that it strongly varies in magnitude and by gender and age group of school children (Borraz, 2005, Acosta 2006, and Lopez-Cordova and Olmedo 2006).Some negative effects, or the absence of effects, has also been reported, particularly for older school children.Calero, Bedi, and Sparrow (2009) find that remittances between Ecuador's poor do not offset earnings from child labor despite remittance income.

Domestic vs international migratory aspirations
The implications for a child of migrant could be positive in that the move could imply an effort to provide resources to the family, some of which could be used for schooling.As the migrants from abroad to produce resources in the shape of remittances and uplift, the life profile of the families and maximize their allocation for the different aspect like house construction, heath food and education.In the domestic context, this would be helped by the positive feedback of migratory intentions for other members of a household.In other words, parents that aspire to domestic migration could both be taking steps to support their child's education and be indirectly passing on an incentive to continue schooling.In the international context, the implicit emphasis on securing resources that could be beneficial for a child's education.

Educational investment of remittances
Taylor (1987) describes that, a child would perhaps experience disruptions in terms of parental proximity, but unlike the parent who aspires to move; his/her educational trajectory would be independent of the perceived utility of education at the intended destination.As a potential positive consequence of a future move could be an increased household budget for educational expenditure due to remittances and the absence of a household member, aspiring to migrate may imply a greater focus on the child's education and would therefore have a positive relationship.In the context of Taylor the impact of migration, turn positive for the education of left behind children.As they might be in a batter economics position to handle the expenses of the child's education due to remittances and the extra attention or care of the child through their significant other after his father or mother's emigration may also increase the probability of quality education for the children left behind.Taylor assumption is also fitting in the context of the researcher's area.Now-a-days the trend has been that often of the migrants educating their children particularly in technical education, with the intention of a future expected migration of the children.Than in the case of their migration, these children return more income as compared to un-skilled and semi-skilled worker.They prefer to get a degree or a diploma in civil engineering, autocode etc. and latter on they will move on to the same destination.Two studies by Mansuri inform about gendered remittance allocation relevant to the South Asian context of children's education.In Pakistan, where over a quarter of households have at least one migrant member, Mansuri (2006) finds a positive migration impact on three educational attainment measures, that is, enrollment, retention, and grade completion.Her results show that girls' enrollment increases more than boys' enrollment and that dropout rates decline substantially faster among girls.Large gender differences in accumulated schooling are found among enrolled children, with girls benefiting more than boys in migrant households and compared to children in non-migrant households.These differences may be directly related to gender patterns as the burden of substitute labor likely falls more heavily on boys because of greater male immigration and public mobility-restricting female seclusion.Looking at the effect of female headship in migrant households, Mansuri finds that dropout rates of girls double in such households, eradicating the benefit girls have compared to those in non-migration households when it comes to real attendance.The author attributes this result to childcare activities and other domestic chores by girls in addition to chores shared with male siblings.Finally, Lloyd, Mete, and Grant (2009) elaborate on some of the risks of a remittance economy in rural Pakistani households.Operationalizing the sudden suspension of remittances as a ''household shock'' (e.g., through recession), they find the odds of boys dropping out of school five times bigger for children in families experiencing such a shock than those in families without such an event.Kandel and Kao (2000) stated that, in the case of international migration, potential negative consequences are generally tied to the disruptive nature of migration for those left behind and the perceived limited utility of available education at the place of destination.If the researcher consider only these factors than the aspirations to international migration would have a negative association with the education and educational outcome of the left behind children.However, a child of an aspiring migrant may not be negatively affected by perceived limited returns to education in the destination country as parental aspirations to migrate may not extend to the child.To summarize, diverse patterns exist for remittance utilization and educational investment across world regions.Household structure, gender roles, and kinship patterns affect basic educational investment opportunities for the left behind children.The bigger the families structure, the less the chances, to educate all the children of the household.The amount of remittances may not be sufficient to facilitate the education for all the children.This is more common relation of the researcher's trend of migration and the education of the children, as more of the families are either joint or extended and having more than dozens of children of school going age.Gender role and the culture have also diversified the allocation of the remittances for the educational purposes of the left behind children.The researcher found that in most of the cluster of the target population the female children were not allowed even for middle school education after completing the primary years.The reason is not only the social poverty but also the infrastructure weakness of the educational institution, as there are no separate institutions for the girl and the people don't like to send their daughters for education in cosystem education.Thus in circumstances the logic of the allocation of more remittances for the male children's education is clear.However for a hypothetical move in the study the migration and the remittances are positively correlated.The studies from globe show both the positive and negative relation of the migration and the education.The case of the negative correlation might be the difference in the frame of context and discipline.But in most of the studies their correlation is positive.

Methodology
The current research activity is quantitative in nature which refers to the utilization of quantified methods of research and the presentation of information in quantified form, for example, numbers and statistics are utilized pre-dominantly in quantitative research.Purposive sampling technique has been utilized for the current study whereby through purposive sampling a total of 99 migrant families were sampled.The sampled families have been interviewed through an interview schedule.Further, the collected information has been analyzed through SPSS (20) in shape of tabular form including frequencies and percentages along with the application of chi-square test in order to validate association among variables.The above table shows cross tabulation between the monthly income of the father and the grade achieved by their child in last examination.

Results and discussions
In this regard, 12 % children were having parents earning 20,001-4 30,000.Among these 12 %, 8 %, 2 % and 1 % children achieved normal, good and excellent grades respectively.13 % of the children were having parents with earning 30,001-40,000 whereby 5 %, 4 %, 3% and 1 % children achieved normal, good, excellent and weak grades in their last examination respectively.Majority, 46 % of the respondents were having parents belonging to income strata of 40,001-50,000.Among these, 30 % and 13 %, respondents achieved normal and good grades respectively.Besides, second majority that is 22 % respondents were having parents earning 50,001-60,000.Among these 16 %, 5 % and 1 % children achieved normal, good and excellent grades respectively..000.000 a 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5.The minimum expected cell frequency is 20.0.b 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5.The minimum expected cell frequency is 24.8.
The above table shows relationship among monthly income and children grades in exams.The relationship between monthly income of migrant and the grades of the student in the last examination is significant.The Pearson chi -square with the values of 52.100 a and 90.778 b, with df of 4 and 3 along with the p value of .000and .000which is less than .05shows that monthly income of father and children grades in exams are associated significantly.Th,erefore the alternate hypothesis is accepted while null hypothesis is rejected.As it given in the table no 6.2.1 by mansuri ( 2006) that migration raises all the three level of educational outcome, in which one was the 'higher completing grade by the migrant's child too.'While afriyie (2009) analyzed that the academic performance of children is not significantly related with the international migration status of the father."Another study on the migration of father and impact upon the educational performance of the left behind children highlight the absenteeism effect.Cortes (2008) found that the absences of one or more of the child's parents increase the household responsibilities of the children and this is a negative influence on their performance."The researcher finding indicates the positive co-relation between the migration and the performance of the children.That is the more the father share in spending on education the better the grade of the children left behind.Moreover, Vogel andkorinek (2003-2004) results, that of the infusions of remittances into household economies present opportunities for households to increase education spending for both male and female children further synthesis the finding of the study.Mansuri (2006) too found that migration impact is positive and significant for all three schooling outcomes.The above given table shows the cross tabulation of the advising manner of the emigrant father and the grade of the student in the last examination.In this regard, 62% of the students were having normal grade and their fathers were advising them in the educational affairs.25% of the students in a similar context were having good grades in their last examination.6% of the children were performing excellently in their academics and 4% were week with advice of the father.2% of the fathers were not advising and guiding their children whereby one student was performing at normal level while one was having good grade in his last examination..000.000 a 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5.The minimum expected cell frequency is 50.0.b 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5.The minimum expected cell frequency is 24.8.
Chi-square test has been applied to the tabular information provided whereby the test-statistics indicates a significant association between grades of students and advise of parents.In explanation, Pearson chisquare is with the value of 88.360 a and 90.778 b, df is 1 and 3 for both variable along with significance .000and .000which is less than .05;therefore, the alternate hypothesis is accepted and that of the null hypothesis is rejected.Tufis (2007) explained various reasons of termination of the migrants' children from higher education whereby lower levels of supervision and interest determine the discontinuation of higher education.As a result, children of migrants are less likely to attain higher education as compare to the children of local residents.However, to Arguillas and Williams (2010) there is no association of migration with attainment of higher education.The assumption is supported by many studies, however, migration of parents' leads to absence of advises supervision and guidance which is eminent to drop out at higher educational level.Thus, there is an indirect association between parental migration and drop out at higher educational level.

Conclusion
International migration is a common practice in the modern globalized world.And it contributed a lot to the sending community and the host community as well.The contribution of international migration to the economy of the relative state is significant.The contribution of Pakistan in international migration on both the emigration and immigration is significant.However the emigration is a more continuous process in the context of Pakistan.In Pakistan, the flow of remittance has been increased with the international migration trends which in return contributed to the country's economy.International migration in the context of Pakistan has significantly raised the levels of the education in the migrant families.However, researcher also found the adverse effect of immigration on education, in the context of father absenteeism.There are many other effects of international migration on the education of the children left behind such as the exposure of the individuals widened and it indirectly influences to invest in the education.And international migration also relaxes the household budget with the inflow of regular remittance and these remittances has made it possible to invest more on the education of the children which previously was impossible due to budget constraints.On other side father absenteeism sometime effect the education of children left behind negatively.That is the improper supervision of the left behind children in the case of their father's emigration, emotional detachment some time create psychological problem that influence child academic performance.Another effect of emigration as found in the study is the emigration of a child after father's emigration that detaches him from the studies.However, the overall impact of father's emigration on the educational out of the children left behind is battered and it promotes higher education_ which in another case might be difficult due to poverty_ quality education.And the alternate hypothesis of the study positively supports the above mention assumption in the context of the study.How to reduce the chances of adverse effecting and multiply further the benefits of migration for the education?There are some suggestions given below.
Study 1.To find out the relation of migration and educational development of children in the left behind family 2. To know the range of remittances and family investment in the education of the children left behind 3. To know the educational performance of the children left behind Hypotheses H0: There is no significant association between father's migration and educational outcome of the children left behind H1: There is significant association between father's migration and educational outcome of the children left behind Review of literature Pakistan, a developing country with overpopulation ratio to its economic growth rate and with least productive land have the leading in migration statistic of the world.An estimated population of 3.5 to 4 million people are living outside of the country (Saeed and Ashfaq 2012, World Migration Report 2011, Siegmann 2010, Pakistan Institute of Legislative Development And Transference (PILDAT) 2008

Table 1 :
Monthly Income of the migrants and student grades in last examination (Cross tabulation)

Table 2 :
He advise his children/offspring on educational affairs * The grade of the student in last examination Cross tabulation Count What